French Revolution - Battle of the Nile Conclusion

The French suffered mightily for their early mistakes. By 7pm on the first day of battle, much of the French fleet had been reduced to wreckage, but in a stunning show of courage, the French continued the fight. Notably the Guerrier, which suffered the heaviest damage, refused to surrender, and continued firing whatever cannons it still had available. The dogged French finally surrendered after the Zealous sent a boarding party onto the beleaguered Guerrier’s deck around 9pm.  The remaining French ships could not muster such stolid passion, and exit the battle long before midnight on the first day.

Thomas Whitcomnbe's depiction of the French collapse at night.
A fitting, clear representation of what has been called by many to be
the greatest battle during the Age of Sail, and one of the most
important naval battles of all time.

The Conquerant, next in line after the Guerrier, submitted under the Audacious’ many heavy broadsides. She was out of the battle by 7pm on the first day. Spartiate was next. The French fight was great, but under the attack of three ships, the inevitable was only a matter of time. Before it struck colors, the French vessel did, however, inflict some pain upon the British by taking down the masts of all three of her aggressors. The Spartiate’s action helped to slow the rapid British advance, and further allowed the next ship-of-the-line, the Aquilon, to square off against only one British attacker, the HMS Minotaur – Nelson’s flagship.

As the late afternoon turned to night, the British were already
well on their way to a famous victory

The conflict between the Aquilon and Minotaur was among the most intense engagements of the battle. The French struck the first blow when it swung across Minotaur’s bow, and unloaded a raking broadside that killed 100, and wounded many more, including Nelson himself. The cannonade had sent iron and wood splinters across the British deck, and had struck Nelson’s face. Luckily for the British Admiral, one iron splinter hit him in his already blinded right eye, but other debris had also hit Nelson, who at this point believed he was certainly dying. Preparations were made for Nelson’s “certain” death, but upon a medical examination by the ship’s doctor, Nelson was assured that his wounds were not fatal, but he needed to rest. Spurning his doctor’s commands, the Admiral immediately resumed his post to oversee the battle. Nelson’s ship then took advantage of the Aquilon’s now vulnerable position, and unloaded a number of crippling broadsides that forced the French out of battle just after 9pm. Minotaur was not done, and under Nelson’s guidance, sailed southward along the French line to assault the Franklin later in the evening.

Lord Horatio Nelson believed he was dying at one point, only to be
told that his wounds were not fatal, others were not so lucky

While the Minotaur engaged Aquilon, HMS Orion and Defence took positions on either side of Peuple Souverain, and quickly demasted  it, thus wounding many aboard, including the ship’s captain. Realizing what was taking place, he ordered the cable linking all of the French ships-of-the-line together cut in a desperate attempt to save his ship from further damage. This action, however, proved very costly. Now demasted, and no proper steering mechanisms, Peuple Souverain drifted woefully southward into the French flagship, Orient’s, path. The Orient mistook Peuple Souverain for an enemy vessel, and began firing upon it before a fireship crossed the bay, narrowly missing the British, and allowing the French to see that it was mistaken in attacking their own ship. Peuple Soverain anchored near the Orient a few minutes later, and remained inactive for the battle’s duration. Franklin was next. It fought bravely, but a number of events culminated in an arms locker explosion that rendered the ship inactive.

The HMS Majestic

Now came the big test for the, to this point dominant, British. Orient, the enormous French flagship was already under fire from the unlucky HMS Bellerophon, which was no match for the French ship alone.  Orient battered the British mercilessly, inflicting more than 200 casualties, and extensive damage upon the misguided British ship. Though it had forced the Bellerophon out of action, the Orient had also suffered a serious blow as well – Admiral Brueys was fatally hit by a British cannonball, and died 15 minutes later. Further casualties illustrate an incredible picture, Orient’s captain, Luc-Julien-Joseph Casabianca, was knocked unconscious by flying debris during the melee, which was normal during these naval battles. What was less normal, however, was that some of that debris struck Casabianca’s 12 year old son, who was standing next to him in the fight, and took off the young boy’s leg.

The Orient's explosion was the culmination of the battle

Fighting continued south of the Orient as the Tonnant continued its struggle with the now thoroughly entangled HMS Majestic. The British received the worst of this conflict before finally releasing itself from the Tonnant’s masts. Instead of fleeing toward safety, Majestic steered in between the Heureaux and Tonnant, and opened fire upon both ships, somewhat in a foreshadowing of Nelson’s famous “Crossing the T maneuver” at Trafalgar a few years later. It was at this point that the HMS Leander entered the fray, and leveled a devastating series of broadsides into the already faltering Peuple Souverain, Orient, and Franklin. The remaining British ships also soon followed, and centered their focused attention upon Orient and Tonnant. The French vanguard had by now totally collapsed, but the battle was not yet won. Victory was almost assured, however, when the concerted British effort brought the Orient to her knees.

The Battle of the Nile turned into a French nightmare
complete with death, despair, and chaos

At 9pm, as the French vanguard collapsed, the British spotted a fire aboard the Orient’s lower decks. This signaled immediate danger for the French, but an undeniable opportunity for the British, who were ordered to fire their cannons directly into the French ship’s fire, and caused it to spread throughout the ship’s interior.  Soon, Orient was engulfed in flames, and the British held their fire. They had to flee the scene, as such a conflagration could erupt at any moment. That moment came around 10pm when the fire touched off the ships large powder magazines unleashing a massive explosion such that the nearest ships were ripped open or set ablaze by the falling debris. Soon, a second explosion was felt, when the Franklin, which was also set ablaze by falling debris from the Orient. Many were killed in Orient’s explosion alone, including the already wounded Casabianca and his 12 year old son. But the battle had to go on in spite of this serious set-back. After a ten minute stunned silence, the British  attempted to save as many floating survivors as possible, and the French resumed the battle. By midnight, however, only Tonnant remained in the battle.

Morning broke on August 2 to reveal how
complete the British victory was over their French counterpart

Tonnant, much like Guerrier, steadfastly continued the fight. Her captain had lost both legs and an arm, the ship had lost all masts, and was reduced to a wreckage, but it continued to fight, until 3am, when it drifted southward to join the French rearguard. Then for an hour, both sides rested. Firing once again resumed at 4am on August 2, when the remaining French rearguard attempted to take advantage of a numerical mismatch, but the tide once again turned toward the British, who sent the remaining fleet to support the forward most British vessels. By 6am, the French were in retreat. The Heureaux, Mercure, Timoleon, and Tonnant all ran aground. Guillaume Tell, Genereux, Justice, and Diane, were the only ships able to escape destruction or capture on August 2, as the British began completing their astounding victory. Still defiant, however, the remaining, grounded, French ships would not surrender until August 3 when Nelson sent Theseus and Leander toward Tonnant and Timoleon. Rather than allow what could have been a salvageable ship fall into British hands, the French survivors set the Timoleon ablaze, and it too exploded hours later, adding to the total wreckage of Napoleon’s fleet.

Commemorative medals praising Nelson and his fleet at
Aboukir Bay

The British victory was total. Napoleon had lost his entire fleet during the course of battle, but he had lost much more than just a fleet. He lost his entire expedition. There was now no way for the would be world beater to transport his immense army of soldiers, scientists, and other officials back to France. Further, without a fleet, the best the French army could do in Egypt was scavenge for an existence. Napoleon, and indeed, the French Revolution were in serious trouble. Nelson's victory signaled to the rest of Europe that the French could be beaten. With the greatest French commander trapped in a far distant land, the rest of Europe began plotting to undo the French victories first at Malta, and then at Campo Formio. War was once again certain, but the French and Napoleon, though seriously imperiled, were far from defeated.

Illustrator George Cruikshank's satirical depiction of the British
victory. Notice the many missing limbs sacrificed for the cause

French Revolution - Battle of the Nile, The Battle Begins

After weeks of near misses, the British finally located the French fleet, which they had already once missed, at Aboukir Bay.  At 2pm on August 1, 1798, lookouts aboard the HMS Zealous sighted what he reported as 16 French ships-of-the-line anchored in the shallow bay. (He was in fact incorrect, as there were only 13 ships-of-the-line). Almost concurrently, the French spotted the rapidly onrushing British fleet, and began hastily preparing as best they could for the inevitable conflict. French Admiral Brueys, however, was instructed by Napoleon to avoid conflict at all costs, and for the next six hours, the exhausted  and undermanned French fleet attempted to maneuver their way into an escape. Yet Nelson and the British would have nothing to do with the French tricks, and continued sailing  swift course toward Aboukir Bay.

Thomas Luny's depiction of the Battle of the Nile at night on Day 1

With preparations complete for the British, and as  good as they could be for the French, the battle erupted when HMS Goliath and HMS Zealous came to within striking distance of Guerrier and Conquerant. The British fired first, and the French responded about ten minutes later. While the British were awaiting a French response to their initial cannonade, Captain Thomas Foley of Goliath recognized a French tactical error, and he intended to exploit it. There was a gap between Guerrier and the shallows near the shoals. In a hastily planned maneuver, Goliath was steered into the gap, and unloaded a massive broadside into the Guerrier, which was unprepared to return fire from what the French thought would be an unused side of the ship. Foley wanted to take advantage of this new found success, but he could not slow his ship in time, and he sailed past the Guerrier and into range of the also ill-prepared Conquerant, which also suffered heavy broadsides by the English vessel. Captain Samuel Hood also noticed Goliath’s successful maneuver, and followed suit with HMS Zealous.  This time the Zealous did slow down, and hammered the Gurrier, which lost her main mast in the early melee. Such was the speed and accuracy of the British, that they caught the French commanders almost completely unawares, as they were still aboard Admiral Brueys’ flagship in conference over how to proceed with their battle plan. The French captains rapidly departed the Orient, and made their way, perilously, back to their charges already under British fire.

Map depicting both fleets after day 1

A third British ship, HMS Orion, entered the fray, and was stupidly fired upon by the French frigate Serieuse. (Stupid, because according to naval conventions of the day, larger ships were not to fire upon smaller ships, if other larger ships were nearby, and able to be attacked. Serieuse’s instigation nullified convention, and opened it for attack).  Orion only needed one broadside to obliterate the impudent French vessel, and knock it out of the battle. Meanwhile, more British ships followed the Goliath, the HMS Theseus and HMS Audacious  which also found space behind the French line, allowing them time to hammer the French ship Spartiate as well as inflicting further damage to the already suffering Guerrier and Conquerant. The Orion would also return to focus her attention against the French main line, and began harassing the Peuple Souverain. The French were under severe duress, but the main attack had not even arrived. That would come when the next British wave came in the form of the Vanguard, Minotaur, Defence, and Theseus.

The French captains had to hastily row to their vessels
 amid the British attack

This second wave spelled doom for the French “van.” They were now heavily outnumbered, and taking severe damage from both sides. Noticing what was taking place in the van, the next two British ships HMS Bellerophon and HMS Majestic decided to sail past the initial melee, and engage the French center. This, however, was one of the few British mistakes in the battle. Both British ships soon encountered heavy broadsides by the much larger French flagship Orient and another nearby ship-of-the-line Tonnant.  Neither British ship had intended to sail so far, but their anchors were not properly dropped. The Bellerophon suffered heavy damage, and was sent drifting away from the battle, and the Majestic sailed too close to the Heureaux, which caused both ships to become entangled. During the confusion, the British, though on the short end of this encounter, did seriously wound French Admiral Brueys, and eventually manage to push the Heureaux aground. The other British mishap came when the HMS Culloden was run aground, but these errors were not enough to swing the battle into French favor, as the initial stunning British advance would ultimately win the battle.

British ships taking advantage of a French mistake

French Revolution - Battle of the Nile, Introduction

Napoleon could not truly celebrate his victory at Embabeh, though he spoke in heroic terms of the encounter, because he, and the French knew that Rear-Admiral Horatio Nelson’s rapidly approaching fleet could undo the entire French campaign just as easily as the French had defeated the Mamluks. Such a specter hung ever present over the French plans that, even in victory, uneasiness was always present. Nelson, for his part, would soon oblige, and turn the nightmare into reality.

French Admiral Francois-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers

The British had been chasing French ships, both small and great, for years, but the British increased their dogged intensity in 1798’s spring. They had reason to do so, because news had been filtering throughout Europe that the French were planning something massive. Napoleon’s ultra-secretive attitude concerning where the French would strike saved the expedition in the early goings, but once the plan was put into motion, the British only needed time to track down the French fleet. The British picked up the scent once Malta fell to Napoleon’s force. Napoleon was still, for the time being, safe, because only he knew where he was going, yet once he arrived near Alexandria in June 1798, Nelson began narrowing his focus, and plotting his devastating move.

Nicholas Pocock's depiction of the French Navy at Aboukir Bay

Nelson knew that he could not defeat Napoleon on land, which affected his planning. He knew that the French army had to rely heavily upon the navy for supplies, and logistics; therefore, Nelson surmised, destroy the French Navy, and the French army would eventually succumb. Not only would they suffer defeat, but Napoleon would also be trapped far away from Paris. Such an event, in the British eyes, would keep the most dangerous revolutionary away from the most dangerous European nation – an absolute must for British security. (Interestingly enough, even many within the Directory also hoped to see Napoleon fail far away from home).

The British approach the French line

The French, for their part, continued to plan evasive and defensive maneuvers. They knew that eventually the British would find them, so in the meantime, they should prepare for battle. After a series of near misses, the French fleet was finally discovered at Alexandria on August 1, 1798. Napoleon wanted to keep the fleet close by, but Alexandria’s harbor proved too shallow for the larger French ships. Admiral Francois-Paul Brueys d’Aigalliers argued that in order for the French to ably withstand a British assault a new location for the fleet was imperative. Napoleon half-way agreed, and commanded the fleet to sail to Aboukir Bay, part of the Nile’s delta, and if that maneuver did not suffice, then sail northward to Corfu, Greece. Brueys did not like Aboukir Bay’s shallow depth. But he had no choice, it was either Aboukir Bay or attack the Ottoman Empire in Greece, an option that he greatly spurned, as he believed his ships were vital to the French action in Egypt. All but one of his commanders believed Aboukir Bay was the best option, with only Armand Blanquet in opposition. With the location selected, the French set about ordering their ships in what seemed to be a very sound defensive posture with the 13 main Ships-of-the-line attached to one another with cables as the main gunnery battery. Various smaller ships dotted the bay from east to west in the shallower regions. Two landed positions were also strengthened, and were to act as the head and tail of the French fleet. Under such an array, Brueys and his officers had hoped that Nelson would be forced to focus his attention toward the very strong French center, but there were significant flaws in the French defensive posture, flaws that Nelson would expose with aplomb. More significantly, however, was the seeming disregard Napoleon had for his fleet. He stripped it of the majority of valuable supplies, such as food and water. He deemed those supplies more necessary for the army than for the navy, a mistake that would haunt him. Further, the army moved away from the fleet, and into Egypt’s interior, which allowed local Bedouins the opportunity to harass their foreign invaders. After a few days under these conditions, French Naval personnel became weak, and unable to properly outfit their vessels for battle. The French Navy, therefore, fought two battles inherently, one against the British, and one against the French Army. Neither battle could not won by the French Navy.

French Revolution - Battle of the Pyramids

Another, more accurate, and thus less propagandized view of Napoleon's victory. Note the Pyramids on the horizon.

Napoleon, as many Europeans of that time, was fascinated by Egypt. He not only wanted to conquer it for France, but he also wanted to catalog it for the world. He planned excursions down the Nile, which were to, in a manner of thinking, link the past with the present. The French were, in other words, to become the heirs to Ancient Egyptian grandeur. To make this possible, Napoleon transported an army of geographers, historians, and writers along with the military. The military had their part, but so did the civilians, and for that, Napoleon’s Egyptian expedition became a thing of legend, even in spite of the utter failure of it all, militarily speaking. Before the civilian task force could accomplish its goals; however, the military had to pacify the countryside, which would happen rather easily.

A cultural triumph of the French, the Rosetta Stone
was discovered by Pierre-Francois Bouchard
during Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign

Napoleon ordered his men into four main outfits. Alexandria was occupied by Jean Baptiste Kleber. Louis Desaix was to take his division along with two cannons, deemed enough to handle the occupying Turkish allies, across the Nile River Delta and into Damanhour. Charles Dagua was to capture Rosetta, for which his name would become related to Pierre-Francois Bouchard’s famous hieroglyphics discovery, and thus open an entrance for the ever-hiding French Fleet. From Rosetta, Dagua was to march down the Nile and rejoin Napoleon’s main army outside of Rahmanie. Once the two forces united, Napoleon was then to take Rahmanie. Once Rahmanie fell, the French awaited their fleet’s arrival, which happened on July 12. Together, both military branches were to move southward along the Nile river. At this point, however, weather intervened, and took a toll on the French fleet. The fleet soon found itself sailing straight into 4,000 ready Mamluks and their navy. The French ships were too large to properly maneuver along this narrow stretch, which allowed the Mamluks to capture many of the smaller French gunships. Nearby, Napoleon heard the firing cannons, and rushed to Chebreiss, where the main Mamluk body was located, and crushed the opposition, thus sparing his own navy.

Map detailing the Battle of the Pyramids

Napoleon continued his march, now toward Cairo, before which lay the Mamluk army under Murad and Ibrahim Bey. After a long march in searing heat, the French came to within striking distance of Murad Bey’s force on July 21. Instead of resting, Napoleon, true to form, decided to catch the Mamluk’s off guard, and attack. Five divisions organized themselves into rectangles, with the baggage inside and the artillery positioned in each corner. The rectangles formed a line – Right, Center, and Left – and marched in a staggered form down the Nile’s left bank with the Right, under Desaix, leading the charge. Murad intended to counter the French charge by occupying Embabeh, which had an old fort equipped with outdated cannons. To shift Napoleon’s attention away from the city, Murad deployed the Mamluk cavalry toward the desert, away from the Nile. Ibrahim Bey’s army, on the other hand, was rendered useless due to being unprepared on the Nile’s right bank – another reason why Napoleon opted to strike early. (According to some accounts 40,000 Mamluks were stranded and forced to watch Napoleon’s victory).

The once fearsome Mamluk cavalry was no match for Napoleon's
modern military tactics and weaponry

In a desperate  attempt to wrest momentum and superiority away from the French, Murad ordered his cavalry to charge the French in mid-afternoon. Napoleon’s innovational “squares”, as they’ve become known, remained strong in face of attack, and hammered the on-rushing cavalry mercilessly. Realizing that their old-style tactics were inflicting no damage against the main French body, the Mamluks next attempted to attack separated and smaller French units, such as the detachment that Desaix sent to take nearby Biktil. Once again, the Mamluks were frustrated to devastating effect. Now with no cavalry presence, Murad’s position at Embabeh became untenable. The French easily charged into the city. Thousands of Mamluks fled across the Nile, but hundreds drowned in the attempted flight. Murad Bey’s resistance was shattered, though he would attempt a type of guerilla warfare until his death in 1799.  The remaining Mamluk presence in Cairo vacated the city upon hearing of Napoleon’s victory, and fled toward Syria for safety. Napoleon gave chase, and personally made certain that Ibrahim Bey’s remaining force left the continent. The remaining dignitaries in Cairo offered the city to Napoleon on July 22, and it too was occupied by the French army.

Glorified version of Napoleon's victory at the "Battle of the Pyramids"

Napoleon, ever the propagandist, whipped up his own frenzied story about the battle. He is credited with heroic speeches, and glowing tales of derring-do at the foot of the Pyramids at Giza. In fact none of this happened, and the Pyramids were approximately 9 miles distant. Regardless, contemporary paintings were commissioned showing the Pyramids as eager spectators to Napoleon’s triumph. He would have had it no other way. Such was Napoleon’s propaganda effort that even though he suffered the crippling naval defeat ten days later at Aboukir Bay, his victory at the “Battle of the Pyramids” overwhelmed the French press at home. He was viewed by most as the savior of France, even if he could not get out of Africa. Further, to this day, the Battle at Embabeh is regarded as one of Napoleon’s greatest triumphs, even though the importance of the battle vanished after Nelson hammered the French fleet.

Bronze medal struck commemorating Napoleon's famous victory

French Revolution - The French Invade Egypt and Take Alexandria

Napoleon had to rapidly move from Malta to stay ahead of the
onrushing British Fleet under Lord Nelson

Once terms were settled in Malta, Napoleon set sail for Northern Africa. Though no one can say for certain where Napoleon desired to land, one can say Alexandria was not his first choice with some exactitude. None-the-less, Napoleon had to craftily sail so as to elude the pursuant British, led by Horatio Nelson. Napoleon had hoped to gather forces together, both French and locals, before he assaulted the Egyptian capital, but events and plans changed once the first French came ashore on July 1, 1798.

Map detailing the French land campaign in Egypt

The first few French landed near Alexandria under strict rules to obey local, Islamic, customs. Napoleon, though he did not care for any form of religion, understood the need to use religion as his own tool. Upsetting the Islamic population would have forced the Egyptians to side with the British and Ottoman Turks against his general goal. With this orders stressed as very important, the French began coming ashore after midnight on July 1. Intelligence reported that Alexandria, under the Ottoman Turks, was to fight against Napoleon’s army. Napoleon responded much as he would have if he were fighting the Austrians in Italy, that is, he struck hard and fast. Just hours after landing, the French were in marching order heading toward Alexandria. The French used cunning and guile in their approach, which allowed them to arrive at Alexandria’s walls almost unnoticed. When the entire French force was revealed, the city’s defenders fled. Before formalities could be arranged, the French stormed into the city, and took it belligerently, though, the Alexandrians put up little or no fight at all.

Napoleon took Alexandria with ease, but he had to
fight harder to keep public opinion in check

Stunningly, the French were not ashore for more than 12 hours, and they had found themselves in control of Egypt’s capital. Napoleon, however, realized his army’s imprudence in entering Alexandria, and immediately set about playing politics. He told the Egyptians, in summary, that he was not against Islam, Allah, or Allah’s prophet Mohammed. In fact, drawing from the anti-Christian Revolutionary ideal, he shared the same enemies as Islam did. He retold stories of attacking the Catholic Church, the Pope, the Crusader’s descendants, etc… He came to bring freedom to Muslims, and destroy the Mamluk’s enslaving tyranny. What he said worked, but the full extent that his statements had upon Egypt will never be fully known, because shortly after the Tricolor was raised above Alexandria, the British were spotted sailing toward Aboukir Bay. The remaining French soldiers had to quickly come ashore, and all supplies had to come with them. Once this was accomplished, a massive task in and of itself, the French fleet was to somehow evade the British, and sail to Aboukir Bay with the hopes of sailing to Corfu. Sailing to Corfu, however, would never happen.